Different Views About Test Anxiety Psychology Essay

Different Views About Test Anxiety Psychology Essay Walter (2002) describes test as an intentional capacity to explore the interest level, information, ability and tasks achievement. According to Cronbach, (1980) a test is an organized method for weigh against the behavior of two or more people. According to (Cronbach, 1980) A test is an organized method for weigh against the behavior of two or more people. There are varieties of tests which include the following:- 1. Aptitude tests 2. Tests of developed abilities 3. Achievement tests 4. Mental ability tests And much other kind of tests are prepared and organized to evaluate the students abilities and academic performance. Aptitude tests are organized in order to look for the talent and passion of the students in the required field. Tests are also conducted for the skills to check that had been taught, on the other hand achievement tests are required to ,,,,,,,. Definition of Anxiety: Cohen, (1981) stated Anxiety as a basic human passion that was acknowledged even before 5000 years ago ,whereas The British poet W. H. Auden called the 20th the age of anxiety. Crooks and Stein (1988) say that Anxiety is described as feelings of worry, hesitation, nervousness and fear that go along with the commencement of the sensitive nervous system that arouses bodily changes like blood pressure, fast heart beating, perspiration, cramps etc. Test anxiety These days students are facing number of problems and one of the common problems faced by students is tests that cause anxiety. When students are afraid and feel that they will not be able to perform good in their exams that is test anxiety. Test anxiety is a major problem of students at undergraduate level. Students frequently undergo with anxiety that hold up students learning and test taking abilities to the level that students academic performance is affected badly. Students might have prepared efficiently and competent enough to take test but cognitive anxiety engages students in anxiety provoking thoughts such as fear of failure, or wish to do extraordinarily good, they perform poor. Every student want to score good in their exams.students works hard and puts in their efforts to attain their goal.few of students gets reward in terms of good academic performance and results for their efforts they have done but other students don t care about it.hence teachers and counselors making great efforts to help out their students to improve their grades and CGPAs. (Roberts Saxe, 1982) says that Anxiety influence people in different ways and situations. In educational environments, anxiety might have significant negative impact on cognitive performance, (Tremblay, Gardner, Heipel, 2000) presentation and achievement, (Lalonde Gardner, 1993) knowledge. Tests plays significant part in our everyday life. An important fact that tests have proven to raise strong anxiety and test anxiety has turned out to be a common modern problem (Spielberger Vagg, 1995; Sarason, 1959) Aderson, (2002) says Test anxiety is describes as a kind of anxiety of performance, a sensation that student have for the coming test, in which performance is essential to the person. Definition of test anxiety According to Zeidner, (1998) the set of physiological, phenomenological and behavioral retorts which go with related possible negative failure or results on a test or alike evaluative circumstances is called anxiety. Sarason, (1988) stated that Anxiety is a natural emotion which has fear and uncertainty that usually happens when a person feels any threat that will hurt his ego or self esteem. Set of phenomenological, physiological, and behavioral responses that accompany concern about possible negative consequences or failure on an exam or similar evaluative situation(Zeidner, 1998, p.17). Goonan (2003) stated test anxiety as test anxiety differs from general feelings of anxiety ,it is a specific form of psychological disorder that involves extensive amounts of fear, worry and fear of negative evaluation during or in anticipation of performance or evaluative situations(p.4). It has been defined by many authors, like Dusek (1980) Defined test anxiety as An unpleasant feeling or emotional state that has physiological and behavioral concomitants and that is experienced in formal testing or other evaluative situations.(p.88). Manifestations of anxiety: (Cohen, 1980), has given us four manifestations of anxiety, given as under: Somatic in physical responses 2 Affective in emotions 3 Cognitive in thoughts 4 Motor in actions In cognitive manifestations, it might fluctuate from little worry to fear. Brutal assault could take passion of awaiting disaster, obsession, faces difficulty in sleeping, lack of attention and taking decisions, In motor manifestation, behaviors are frequently exaggerated, worried students shows arbitrary actions that vary from trembling to shaking of the whole skeleton. Complete variety of behaviors like agitation, squirming, fits, nail biting, lip biting, and nervousness could be seen. In somatic changes,changes might come like trivial breathing, dry mouth, cold body, urination, heartbeat, blood pressure. cramps.etc (Antonovsky, 1980).say that Affective domain is the prominent anxiety manifestation. In this situation, students feel persistently nervous and anxious about threats, regardless of the fact thats things are going fine. Psychomotor and academic mistakes, mental performance, that can divert attention and remembrance, and all this occurs due to anxiety which has horrible impacts. However, it is stated by some psychologists verify that anxiety provide motivational purpose Facilitating and Debilitating effects of test anxiety. Meichenbaum Butler(1980) commented about the difficulty and complications of test anxiety and how it influence the students performance: We think test anxiety is more than physiological arousal, more than negative self preoccupation, more than poor study habits, and more than a deficit in stress-related coping skills. In fact, we think it is more than a combination of these factors (p.188). According to Hill Wigfeild (1984) say for many studies have been conducted on the consequences created by test anxiety on students performance. In addition, the connection between performance and anxiety is very significant and composite. Scovel, (1978) have explained two types of anxiety : Facilitating anxiety Debilitating anxiety Scovel (1978) further defines these two types of anxiety and says that facilitating anxiety arouses students to confidently handle the problems and troubles, and to welcome the challenges that come forth. Whereas debilitating anxiety seems to damage students learning results and weakens the required confidence.consquently students affected by debilitating anxiety seems to think inactively and shun failure. Students have Facilitating effects and debilitating effects due to test anxiety describes above. Tryon,(1980) says that Debilitating impact of test anxiety on learning in different cases seems to have spoiled the performance in tests due to test anxiety. Students come across with these debilitating impacts in various forms which damages the students performance in different ways, by worry, hesitation, disbelief and by dropping contribution Models of Test Anxiety There are two models of test anxiety that increases the spectrum of test anxiety. Two models were developed to report the causes of test anxiety. The interference model The skill deficit model. The Interference Model In interference model (Wine 1980; Sarason 1986) says that students having high levels of test anxiety hinder the capacity to recollect the learned information. Interference model covers the Cognitive feature of test anxiety. Benjamin et.al., (1981) described that students have definite ability of processing data and test anxiety may hinder students concentration to use their energy on the retrival of material that they have learned in the testing situations. When the test anxiety will reach to its peak, it will absorb the students processing ability, which will take up the ability that is needed for the tasks. When students dont have the ability of cognitive processing they needed on the spot, it means that the ability has been taken up by the anxiety that interferes learning. Sarson (1984) says that A cognitive interference may be the key factor in lowering the performance of highly test anxious people (p.931). Tobias (1980), says that as students are influenced by cognitive test anxiety, which results in to distract their attention and requires more ability to utilize educational skills. Therefore such kinds of reasons are ascribed to students feeling anxious and it might reduce students performance. Learning is not a problem rather interference with recovery. Wine (1980) says that students having high test anxiety among cognitive ability among giving attention to the task and the attention is given to the cognitions that are not relevant with the task. Both of these factors hinder the capacity to recall and confined the capacity to employ in organized thinking . These points might give description why students by high test anxiety can normally do better on objective/MCQ than on subjective exams where the earlier needs to recall less. Benjamin et, al., (1981) and Tobias (1985) experienced that capable and intelligent students might have done their preparation, yet they will encounter high test anxiety, that confine the thinking process, hinder recalling materials and inhibit to use the techniques to perform well on test. The Skills deficit Model: Hill Wigfields (1984) skill deficit model does not have any direct relationship with test anxiety at first look. Though it tells what activate and produces test anxiety. It permits to know the connection of skill deficit model of test anxiety and poor academic performance. Rather believing that ability to recover data is affected due to interference model, skill deficit model have different point of view.indeed, this gives us the view that students poor academic performance is ascribed with the poor test preparation in learning skills or due to lack of test taking abilities. Hill Wigfield (1984) proposed that the skill deficit model offer reasonable explanation on unforeseen performance of students .the skill deficit model engages two kinds of deficits that endanger the performance of the students, one of them is Learning ability and the second one is Lack of test taking ability. Poor results in academics performance is due to Unsatisfactory preparation before tests came, causes.in addition acquisition problems,problems in remembering and memorizing or retrieving data at initial place. Whereas lack of ability to attempt the test also put in high test anxious students to perform poor ,although students are conscious of their inability of taking test. The skill deficit model says that students with high test anxiety faces problems in learning and arranging learning materials and that gives poor results in performance. (Tobias 1985 ; Naveh -Benjamin, McKeachie and Lin 1987; Birenbaum and Pinku 1997). In spite of, giving different explanations, the skill deficit and interference models may be balancing for each other(Tobias 1985; Birenbaum and Pinku 1997 ).they have suggested different kind of students in addition with different levels of test performance. Students having good learning and organizing abilities, together with low test anxiety ought to do good as they have learned the tests and they do not come across with the difficulty to recall. Whereas other students have the capacity and they learn the test but could not recall in evaluative situations and settings, and when tasks requires more cognitive capacity than they have. yet other fall short to learn and organize materials thats why they perform poor whether they are in test situation and test design. Most of the researchers who hold this model (e.g. Wittmaier, 1972; Desiderato Kokinen, 1969; Culler Holahan, 1980) say those students who show poor academic performance are because of their bad study habits and lack of interest in preparing for their exams. These kinds of students are conscious enough of their study behavior thats why they dont expect good results. These kinds of attitudes amplify anxiety which results in poor academic performance. When students see their academic skills are in enough, they feel anxious and show poor performance. Levels of Test Anxiety: Swanosn and Howell (1996) define the three levels of test anxiety given as under: Low levels test anxiety Moderate test anxiety High test anxiety Spielberger and Sarason,( 1989) further states about the high level test anxiety that helps in the growth the students with low inspiration, lacking academic abilities, lacking use of different techniques for taking test, hopelessness, cheating, carelessness, and thinking negative about himself and lack of attention. It is said students with both high and low levels of test anxiety show good academic performance whereas students with moderate anxiety level perform well. Spielberger and Sarason,( 1989) view and identified three levels of test anxiety .John and Kenneth (1982) says ,students with high level test anxiety badly get in the way with all kinds of performances,and normally students with moderate and low level anxiety helps in improving performance. Components of Test Anxiety (Sarson sarson, 1990) has stated three main components: Cognitive Affective Behavioral Cognitive component: In cognitive view, students having test anxiety due to absence of self confidence.they are surrounded by negative feelings, and feeling incapable of their educational ability and academic skills.(Zeidner, 1998) adds and says, students mostly exaggerate the possible negative results and undergo self-reliant in testing situations. if students want to have good results they should avoid negative thinking. Affective component: In affective view, (Zeidner, 1998) Test anxiety raise some physiological reactions like, fast heart beating, nausea, urination and raises perspiration, stretching of muscles, feeling thirsty, shivering and cold hands. With physiological reactions, emotions like failure threat, worry, might be there. When students are fail to manage their emotions, they feel pressure, tension, fear, thus create more hard and tricky for students to focus. The bodily signs that students feel when they are going through anxiety are linked with the supposed responses to fear and tension. Important physical functions like heart beating, breathing, or rapidity of other body functions, saliva secretions, flow of blood. Students undergo different kind of physical feelings together with nausea, vomiting, cramps in body, feeling dizzy, shivering, and stiffness of joints. Behavioural component: Behaviorally test anxious students states anxiety through reluctance and ineffective learning and test taking ability. Zeidner (1998) says that might test anxious students take more time and problem in assessing information or feel tired during test because of weak students or they are weak in health. State and Trait Anxiety: Spielberger(1972-1983),gave the concept of state and trait anxiety .He described state anxiety as Transitory emotional state or condition of the human organism that is characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of tension and apprehension, and heightened autonomic nervous system activity. Spielberger further states about trait anxiety that Trait anxiety denotes relatively stable individual differences in anxiety proneness and refers to a general tendency to respond with anxiety to perceived threats in the environment.(48) School psychologists have been using state and trait anxiety in 21st century which was introduced by Spielberger in 1972.State anxiety means when horrible feelings and emotions of fear are aroused in danger, whether mentally or bodily. State anxiety is assumes a cognitive insight and judgment of danger, so as to students should know at a stage that particular situation is dangerous. Normally youngsters undergo less anxiety once they are out of hectic occasion is gone. On the other hand, trait anxiety is characteristic of a personality, an ability to encounter state anxiety when came across any difficult situation and danger. but this is different and varies from person to person. Eysenck and Eysenck (1991) describes that high level trait anxiety is strongly associated to neuroticism Terry (1998) tells about the numerous symptoms that shows students test anxiety. following is the symptoms of test anxiety. Emotional reactions such as crying, sensitive hair trigger responses, irritability, excess giggling, sudden changes of expression and general unrest. Bodily manifestation like stomach aches, headache, urination, fatigue, abundant sweating. Dangerous behaviors, like, carelessness, and self defamation. Anxious symptom, such as edgy marks, biting nail, too much blinking, hair chew, finger sucking, swinging action. Misconduct and violence, like breaking pencils, shows anger, slangs language is used, fighting, hounding and destructiveness. Bad exertion routine, for example, day-dreaming, incompetence, dishonesty and absence of attention. Looking for attention: adolescent behaviors, looking for appraisal and positive remarks, demands for attention, construction of weird stories, nonstop curiosity and asking about things around, stick to the teacher, performing. Causes of test anxiety: On the self-defeating consequences of subjective cognitions (Ellsworth Smith, 1988; Lazarus, 1991) suggest that poorer self-beliefs are a major cause of test anxiety. Perceive examinations as more dangerous or threatening and experience more intense levels of state anxiety when taking tests (Spielberger Vagg, 1995, p.6). D Arcylyness, (2004) outlined the following as the causes of test anxiety: a. Lack of preparation by 1 Cramming the night before the test 2 Poor time management 3 Failure to organize test information 4 Poor study habits b. Worry about the following: 1. Past performance on examination 2. How friends and other students are doing 3. The negative consequences of failure. The effects of anxiety on different situations: In different ways the anxiety influences on different kind of human beings. According to Roberts Saxe, (1982) anxiety may affect cognitive functioning badly in any kind of academic setting. Lalonde Gardner, (1993) includes that learning might be affected by anxiety where as Tremblay, Gardner, Heipel, (2000) state that anxiety may affect on performance and success. During specific situation when the manners of apprehension, tension and dread are perceived consciously, it is called General state anxiety which is also called physiological arousal (Endler Kocovski, 2001). Wine (1980) says that the effects anxietyon performance is prominent because of having unbearable impacts on cognitive process. Tremblay, (1998) argues that mostly people are affected through cognitive biases with General trait anxiety which is a firm tendency towards anxiety.Class and test anxiety along with statistics anxiety come into the vast umbrella of Trait anxiety in the view point of (Walsh Ugumba-Agwunobi, 2002). 2.1 Cognitive Style Thinking and perceiving, problem solving and remembering , all these types of actions are considered under the umbrella of cognitive style as has been described by McKay, Fischler Dunn, (2003) as are considered to be trait-like, relatively stable characteristics of individuals, whereas learning strategies are more state-drivenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Cassidy (2004) states that there are many cognitive style typologies from which we give preference to Ridings Cognitive Style Analysis [Riding,2001] because of more vital implications. According to Sadler Riding, (1999) construct of cognitive is more important whether learning style has less importance. The real mode of information processing, cognitive style and their mutual relationship is significant and strengthened to a large extent. 2.2 Cognitive Processing Efficiency The cognitive processing parameters (Demetriou Kazi, 2001; Demetriou et al., 1993]) that have been included in our model are: a- Control of processing (to indicate the relevant and irrelevant information) b- Speed of processing (speed in the given instruction might be accurately executed), c- Working memory span (to hold and integrating different information till the solution of a problem) d- Visual attention (based on the empirically validated assumption that when a person is performing a cognitive task while watching something). According to Baddeley, (1992) all these tasks are measured in shortest possible time span while the working memory span test focuses on the visuospatial sketch pad sub-component and this all is done comfortably. 2.3 Emotional Processing Emotional processing consists of two types: Emotional Arousal: The capability of human being to feel and experience specific emotional circumstances, Emotion Regulation: The process of having perception and control of individual over his emotions. In the view point of Cassady (2004), anxiety is the major thing in the term of behavior which indicates the arousal of various kind of emotions and it has strong relation with academic performance. Also, it is related with performance in computer mediated learning procedures (Chang, 2005; Smith Caputi, 2007). Users trait anxiety could be measured (Spielberger, 1983), and their application specific anxiety, which in the case of e-learning is named as Cognitive Test Anxiety (Cassady Johnson, 2002) In the term of construct of emotional regulation used by us also comes into the concepts of Emotional Control (emotional management, self-awareness, self-motivation)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Goleman, 1995; Salovey Mayer, 1990), and Self Efficacy (Bandura, 1994), Emotional Expression and Emotional experience (Halberstadt, 2005). Lekkas et al, (2007) argues that we can evaluate the affectional responses of enhancing and lessening the learning abilities through measuring the levels of Anxiety with emotional regulation. Factors of Test Anxiety: According to competitive anxiety research (Gould et al., 1984; Burton, 1988). Cognitive (worry) anxiety factor has strong imprints on the achievement of the student then the somatic (emotionality) component. Test anxiety has two main components described by Liebert and Morris (1967) that is worry and emotionality. Worry is conceived as cognitive importance related to tests and test performance. These concerns revolve in the region of negative cognitions, like fixation with the test results and performance. Strong negative penalties like failure, underachievement and evaluation of students skills to others. Academic performance: Phillips and Endler, (1982) say that Academic performance usually depends on students how they make their connections with the academic environment. It is believed that students who are intelligent will be relaxed and less threat full .But these students do have fear of examination. Okebukola and Jegede, (1989) its teachers responsibility to prepare their students to show good academic results as well as to enable them to respond to different academic needs that has impact on academic performance. Relationship between anxiety and academic performance: Roberts Saxe, (1982) say that Anxiety influences people in different ways and situations. In educational environments, anxiety might have significant negative impact on cognitive performance, (Tremblay, Gardner, Heipel, 2000) presentation and achievement, (Lalonde Gardner, 1993) knowledge. Endler Kocovski, (2001) stated that Common state anxiety is a physical stimulation and a deliberately supposed way of hesitation, fear, and stress through a particular moment. (Wine, 1980) describes that, this influence the performance as it has strong effects on cognitive course. Tremblay, (1998) Cognitive biases influence people with common trait anxiety, a steady tendency towards anxiety. Than it have an effect on people who are not anxious. According to Scovel (1978) there is a positive connection between performance and test anxiety. Test anxiety is in fact useful and facilitating as students remained alarmed and conscious. McDonald (2001) describes more connection between levels of performance and test anxiety that will show the arch like a reversed U figure, showing to the best anxiety point. It could be said that when anxiety reaches to the best quantity, it could produce constructive results known to us as facilitating test anxiety. This type and amount of anxiety is useful for students to give attention to their work, and feel himself completely challenged. In contrast, over and small test anxiety will produce tension, constant worry, anxiety and strain or students reluctance, will result in poor performance. Test Anxiety in relation to gender (sex) Research on students educational performance has received significant concentration. Number of researches had been done in the area on the level of anxiety on test anxiety between female and male students academic performance. Walsh, Engbreton and O Brien (1988) performed two researches at the same time to identify whether there is relationship between test anxiety and academic performance as it influences the gender. Researcher collected the data and the Sample were consists of (57 females 46 males,) and total 103 undergraduate students for first research and (52 females 42 males) and total 94 undergraduate students for the second research. Test anxiety findings were correlated with the students Grade Point Averages (GPAs). When the data was analysis, there was negative correlation present between test anxiety and academic performance. Thus negative relationship was found which was more for females and less for males. Daniels and Hewitt (1987), finds if there is correlation between academic performance and test anxiety with gender view. The sample was composed of data (21 males 27 females) and got their scores of test anxiety. When data was examined, it was found that females had high test anxiety as compared with males however they didnt find any major variation of gender in respect of the negative correlation between academic performance and test anxity.it means,that test anxiety has unpleasant effects on academic performance but it didn show any major affect of one gender more than the other. The findings have shown that females undergo high test anxiety as compare to males when measure their test anxiety ,like wise Sarason (1987),Spielberger(1980) and taylor (1998) have found that females have scored high mean score on test anxiety when compared with males.

Independence day

Good Morning Philippines, Respected teachers and my dear friends. I wish you a happy independence Day. INDEPENDENCE DAY means a day when we had got freedom from not only brute rulers but freedom from what from fulfillment of right needs†¦ Today on June 12,2014 Philippines is celebrating Its 16th Independence day and we are proud to say that we earned our freedom 116 year back, which was by an act passed by the American parliament and we were the first to get ourIndependence through the act which Is a mark of respect. Independence Day Is the day to commemorate all the works of certain people or Individuals who contributed much for the liberty of their country. More that celebrating the freedom of the country from slavery, dictatorship and tyrant rule, It Is also the day to acknowledge all the sufferings and hardships of these people we called heroes. We recognize their bravery and thank them for all the things they contributed for the freedom of their entry and countrymen.But let me remind you all that willing Independent was the end of our struggle, it was Just the beginning of our greatest challenge and that was to make us prosperous. As a Filipino citizen , we are proud of its golden past. We had one of the oldest and richest civilization of the world. Today we not only need to be proud of our glorious past but also work to make our present and future better than our past . We need to make our self so capable that we can praise its present ND this can be only done, when we work hard for it.And we can only work hard, if we have a feeling of patriotism & nationalism in our heart. Patriotism is a very deep and meaningful word, and its meaning changes according to the demand of time. During pre Independence time, Patriotism meant to get out of our houses and fight against foreign rule, whereas today a true patriot is that person who gives best of his services in the development, progress and fulfillment of his nation as the best human resource. Independence Day If we are to ask American citizens, â€Å"What is the most terrible crime of all? † would we be surprised if most of them immediately relate to the 9/11 tragedy and choose terrorism as the answer? Of course not. A different answer, however, might be given to us if we asked them several years ago, before the disaster happened. It is human nature, to underestimate the proportion of an issue, until they have experienced it, first hand. But the Americans have now experienced the bitterness of terrorism, they have lost husbands, wives, parents and siblings during the shocking tragedy, and certainly they have taken lessons from it as well.For decades, United States has been the most powerful nation on the surface of the earth. Is it logical to figure that an attack on this country was made without months, or even years of preparation? The attackers must have reliable information about the country’s defense before they start planning, where have they retrieved them? Should not these kinds of information be classified? These are necessary questions, and they will lead us to anticipate the next threat of terrorist actions. Information leaks about sensitive defense system are certainly important factors that made the 9/11 attack possible.Other leaks of information might cause another threats to America in the future. Here is where American Counterintelligence takes a vital role. American Counterintelligence has found that leaks of information have often happened in the United States governmental and intelligence environments. It turned out; the history of Americans sold out their country goes back a very long way. II. Is Espionage Treason? In its nature to jeopardize the life of hundreds or even thousands citizens, espionage should be consider an act of treason.But different of opinions still exist regarding actions that is classified as treason. Is espionage valued as low as defecting or a conspiracy against one’s country? A little trip in history w ill give us the solution. The crime treason has first found itself inside a constitutional foundation in 1350. It was a part of the Statute of Edward. Among the seven categories found in the statute of Edward, the words â€Å"adhering to enemies† and giving them â€Å"aid and comfort† has been classified as an act of treason. These words had also appeared in the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, on the year 1787.In its formulated Article III, section 3, the Constitutional Convention mentioned that treason consists of levying a war against the country, adhering to their enemies, and giving to them aid and comfort. After the Second World War, A review of eight convictions of treason has made the Supreme Court established four elements of treason, and providing â€Å"aid and comfort† to the enemy is still one of them (â€Å"Why Not Call It Treason? †) So it is obvious that espionage has and still considered as treason by US constitution, ancient and modern. Therefore, for the sake of many, sentences for espionage should not be made light.III. America’s First Counterintelligence Chief It was John Jay who’s first coordinated a national level of counterintelligence efforts. His job was leading a legislative committee to investigate a plot to sabotage defense and infrastructure targets in New York. In his investigations, Jay employ at least 10 agents, a few of the famous ones are Nathaniel Sackett, Elijah Hunter and Enoch Crosby. All of his agents were operating under enormous pressure. Some were undercover; being unmasked meant death to all of them (Rose P. K. ,1999). Enoch Crosby, is the best secret agent that John Jay have.He uses various names and identity to retrieve information about the pro-British’s activities. After he get â€Å"to famous† for his work in one place, he was assign to another area, joining another pro-British Colony (Rose, 1999). IV. Cases of Modern Espionage Although cases of tr eason by espionage are abundant since the Independence Day, we will elaborate new ones, in order to recognize an up to date espionage practices. Aldrich Ames’s treason was one of the most popular counterintelligence cases. How could it not be? Ames was the director of CIA Counterintelligence at the time.He was recruited by the Russian and has been supplying staggering amount of information for 10 years. A great number of US agents working undercover in Russia were arrested and killed because of Ames. Ames’s capture in 1994 didn’t come easy, especially after James J, Angleton (his predecessor) was falsely accused by his rivals as a Russian spy also (Hermon). Soon after Ames started to work for the Russian in 1983, suspicion about a spy in American Counterintelligence emerged. But in 1985, when John Pollard, a Jewish agent was arrested with spying for Israel, Aldrich Ames took the opportunity and put the blame to Pollard.In 1987, Pollard was sentenced to life in p rison in 1987. His other successful attempt to turn away the spotlight was by sacrificing another â€Å"more expendable† Russian Spy in the CIA. His name is Edward Lee Howard. But by the help of Ames, Howard managed to flee to Moscow which granted him Political Asylum. Finally, by the testimony of Raffi Eitan, Director of the Office of Scientific Liaison that activated Pollard, Aldrich Ames was uncovered as one of the highest ranking Russian Spy in US Intelligence Agency (Carmel, 1994). But this is already 8 years longer than it supposed to be.Robert Philip Hanssen, age 56, was a veteran counterintelligence agent who was captured selling highly classified national security information to Russia and the former Soviet Union. He was with his colleague â€Å"defending the country† while secretly stabbed them from the back also. He sold up to 6. 000 pages of valuable documentary material in over than 20 separate occasions. In one occasion, FBI agents found that he trade the information with diamonds and more than $ 600. 000 US. Along with the sold documents, Hanssen had compromised FBI counterintelligence investigative techniques, methods and operations.Hanssen has been charged with espionage and conspiracy to commit espionage which are violations with a possible sentence of life in prison or the death penalty (US Department of Justice, 2001). Katrina Leung, a businesswoman and a fundraiser for the Republicans, has successfully compromised 20 years of intelligence work on the People’s Republic of China. Katrina poses as an informant, paid by the Bureau to give information about Chinese Intelligence Operations in America. But at the same time, she was also seducing two senior FBI agents for information.That information regarding the American intelligence was then delivered to Beijing, ruin two decades of counterintelligence work (Marshall, 2003). V. Mistakes and Suggestions One of the factors making it hard for the FBI agents to perform their du ty is the organization’s structure. The bureau is apparently assigned on 2 similar missions which required the opposite skills and quality. The first mission is law enforcement and the second is Intelligence work. Although the two missions are similar, but sharing information, which is a necessity in law enforcement activities, would be disastrous for intelligence work.The double mission structure is making the work complicated and even impossible for FBI agents. Furthermore, the effort to change the structure is made difficult by the decision â€Å"not to change† of the newly arise Republicans (Marshall, 2003) The culture of working alone or in a small team has not make situations any easier. Once an agent is recruited, he/she is referred to as â€Å"special agents† and considered a part of a certain powerful group. This group is unlikely to have suspicion against its fellow agents unless there is no one else to be suspected. This is an obvious mistake.An intel ligence agency is an organization working on the basis of suspicion. None should be consider above suspicion, even ones with seniority. The cases of Aldrich Ames and Robert Philip Hanssen should teach the FBI a very important lesson. In the world of intelligence, it is rather difficult to keep guard on every single possibility of breach. One intelligence agency will always do their best to penetrate all the others. If we are an American agent, working undercover in Russia for instance, we will always worry about a mole in American Agency, exposing our identity to the Russians, and vice versa.So how will we ensure the safety of our agents? , or how would we make easy to discover a mole inside our agency? One way to do it is, by what is called â€Å"compartementation† â€Å"Compartementation† is a design or organization, where individuals are sealed apart from others as humanly possible and information is shared only on a need to know basis. Although the design will make information sharing a little difficult, without it, a mole in the crowd could operate long enough to cause immense destruction before getting caught.A very good example of this is the Aldrich Ames case that we have elaborated before (Marshall, 2003). VI. Conclusion Since the Independence Day, intelligence has always been a mandatory but dangerous work. But due to its role keeping sensitive and classified information regarding a nation’s system of defense, being a dangerous job, is not all that surprising. As an attack on a country has always started with their leak of information, counterintelligence is nothing to be taken lightly. Severe punishment over traitors must also be made to set an example for others, in order not to have it repeated.Experience has shown us that the US counterintelligence activities have not been maximized. Possible reformation to increase the efficiency of the organization hasn’t been conducted yet. Meanwhile, double agents have reached as f ar as the highest level of American Counterintelligence Organization, and have been compromising national security for years before being captured. It is imperative for the organizations to really work on the basis of suspicion, to increase compartementation for a more trustworthy system of investigation.Hopefully, tragedy of counterintelligence such as Ames’s and Hanssen’s would never again be repeated for the sake of the country. Bibliography Carmel, Chezi. 1994. â€Å"The Conspiracy Against Pollard†. Maariv Weekend Supplement (on-line). Available from http://www. jonathanpollard. org/1994/031894. htm Accessed March 29 2005 Freeh, Louis J. 2001. US Department of Justice (on-line). Available from http://www. fbi. gov/pressrel/pressrel01/hanssen. htm Accessed March 29 2005 Hermon, Haim. â€Å"Free Jonathan Pollard†. Available from http://hhermon. tripod.com/jpollard/ Accessed March 29 2005 Marshall, Joshua Micah. 2003. â€Å"Counterintelligent†. Wa shington Monthly (on-line). Available from http://www. washingtonmonthly. com/features/2003/0307. marshall. html Accessed March 29 2005 Rose, P. K. 1999. â€Å"The Founding Fathers of American Intelligence†. Central Intelligence Agency. (on-line) Available from http://www. odci. gov/csi/books/940299/art-1. html . Accessed March 29 2005 â€Å"Why Not Call It Treason? ; from Korea to Afghanistan†. Available from http://www. henrymarkholzer. com/articles_why_not_treason. shtml Accessed March 29 2005

A Streetcar Named Desire By Susan Glaspell - 1462 Words

In any great story, one can find a unique trait that sets it apart from all others. Susan Glaspell s Trifles would be incomplete if not for the lonely farmhouse. Romeo and Juliet is nothing if not a tragedy about star-crossed lovers. The tales that we now know as classics received that label because something about them was just too great to ignore. Although many dramas and stories often find strengths in their story or setting, A Streetcar Named Desire demonstrates the significance of powerful characters. Specifically, Blanche DuBois is arguably the most essential character to the plot. Raised on a plantation among the wealthy, she is a ringing example of sophistication and femininity. The way she speaks and acts portray this, as her words are more often than not poetic in nature and almost too flawless. She s also able to use her words to manipulate others, especially when it comes to dodging questions about her mysterious past. All in all, Blanche is a truly well crafted character because of how unique and unalike she is to any of the other characters in A Streetcar Named Desire, and most of it can be attributed to her distinctive voice. Blanche s character is, as a whole, excessively poetic and complicated in the way she talks. Her pattern of speech serves to reflect her comfortable upbringing and status as a more refined and elite citizen when compared to the other characters of the play. Specifically, when speaking to Mitch, Blanche uses poetic speech to makeShow MoreRelatedA Journey into Drama: An Analysis of Setting in Feminist Plays 974 Words   |  4 PagesThe treatment of women in the modern era has come quite far compared to recent history. This is shown in numerous works of art of the feminist age of fiction. In the three works: Trifles, by Susan Glaspell, â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†, by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and A Streetcar Named Desire, by Tennessee Williams, the setting and the home in which the women are depicted in play a major con necting symbolic role within the feminist plays. The setting of a dilapidated or enclosed home is ever present in

The Oxford Dictionary gives five different definitions of...

The Oxford Dictionary gives five different definitions of the meaning of â€Å"politics.† One definition is: â€Å"activities within an organization that are aimed at improving someone’s status or position and are typically considered to be devious or divisive.† Another definition is: â€Å"a particular set of political beliefs or principles.† For a long time, politics has shaped the way that people write and think about life. Politics has been a major influence on literary works, such as Dante’s Inferno, Don Quixote, and Corinne, Or Italy, and in these works you get the chance to understand the political beliefs from the author’s point of view instead of from another character in the novel. Dante’s Inferno, although seemingly a religious epic poem,†¦show more content†¦Dante was one of the few apart of this political power. In The Inferno, one can see examples of Dante’s political beliefs by who he places in hell and how he actually feels about them. He places Pier della Vigna, once the right-hand man of Emperor Frederick II, in the seventh circle with all the others who commit suicide. In a religious context, Dante abhors suicide because it goes against Christianity. However, Dante shows Pier as the innocent victim of envy and of the courts. The power of envy is so great that not even Emperor Frederick could be immune from it. In Hell, Pier still protests his loyalty to his superior, whom he served faithfully on Earth. Although historical records claim that Piero was not innocent, like he says in The Inferno, for either treason or being a part of some group that wished to tarnish the emperor’s name and reputation. It isn’t certain whether or not Dante was aware of these facts or allegations, but it does show that he wasn’t completely against Pier and that he actually though Pier was innocent of the charges brought against him. Another literary work that has political influence is Don Quixote. Miguel Cervantes was born in 1547 and much of his childhood was spent moving from town to town while his father sought work. He studied in Madrid for one year, where his teacher was the humanist Juan Là ³pez de Hoyos. In 1570, Cervantes joined a Spanish regiment in Naples. He took part in the sea battle at Lepanto (1571) whereShow MoreRelatedREVIEW OF LITERATURE India is a vast developing country in1600 Words   |  7 PagesREVIEW OF LITERATURE India is a vast developing country in the world and people of many different communities and religious live together in unity. Tribal study is not new to this present research world. There are many studies already done on this topic. Many scholars have paid their attention on it and contributed very much to the field of tribal studies. Most of the scholars were studied about indigenous features of tribes especially their cultures beforeRead MoreEssay about Consumer Culture and Identity2218 Words   |  9 Pagesgroup and its lifestyles, as well as to generate a sense of identity.† The mention of identity in Fonseca’s definition brings about an understanding of the impact consumer culture can have on social agents, and not just on the economic or capitalism that comes with consumption. This essay will discuss the relationship between Consumer culture and Identity. The essay is divided into five parts; the first section is an introduction into what Consumer culture is, the second section is also an introductionRead MoreSlang in American and English Newspapers3926 Words   |  16 Pages 2 INTRODUCTION This paper is devoted to the analysis of the use of slang in modern American and British newspapers, its peculiarities, means of its creation and its use in different kinds of articles. 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